Marketing
of Food, Alcohol and Tobacco to Young People
A BibliographY
April 2002
International Obesity Task Force
PREFACE
This bibliography can only provide a limited survey of the extensive
literature on the global marketing of food, alcohol and tobacco to young
people. Inevitably publications concerning
the United States and European markets abound although references were found on
a wide range of countries including Australia, Chile, China, Hong Kong, India,
Japan, Nepal, New Zealand, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Sri Lanka, among
others.
Specialised databases searched included Medline, SOSIG,
BIREME, EMERALD, JSTOR, INGENTA, OXLIP, BLPES, PsycINFO and
the International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, but a general search
using several internet search engines was also conducted. These are listed at
the end of the document.
This bibliography provides an alphabetical list, sub-divided
into food, alcohol and tobacco categories. An alternative format which
categorises strategies targeting young people, impact on behaviour and
counter-actions is available from the following website: http://www.iotf.org/php/.
Where applicable, web links have been included in the
references so as to facilitate the accessibility of documents. A list of
relevant web links has also been included at the end of the document.
Karin
Cerri, Neville Rigby
Public Health Policy Group / International Obesity TaskForce
tel: +44 2076911900 fax: +44 2073876033
email: obesity@iotf.org
Marketing of food, alcohol and
tobacco to young people
Bibliography (alphabetical order)
Marketing
to Young People
1.
Advertising
Education Forum (AEF). Legislative Overviews. http://www.aeforum.org
Provides legislative
overviews for a wide range of countries.
2.
Criticises
advertisements that ignore the intent of the Children’s Television Act of 1990. Reviews
evidence of impact of advertising on food consumption, as well as on cigarettes
and alcohol.
3.
Bergler R. The effects of commercial advertising on
children. European Commission, Commercial Communications Newsletter
16-17 (http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/comcom/newsletter/edition16-17/page41_en.htm
Argues
that no evidence has yet been able to prove a direct link between advertising
and child or juvenile purchasing behaviour.
4.
BEUC. The
European Consumers’ Organisation. Children and
Advertising: Summary of the BEUC/CB Survey. BEUC
1996
Gives an outline of the recent
developments in marketing practices targeting children, and provides and
overview of research on the effects of advertising on children. Also reviews existing regulation on children
and advertising and comments that while there is a fair amount of regulation on
television advertising, regulation is lacking in other marketing practices,
such as advertising through schools, direct mail, clubs etc.
5.
Canadian
Advertising Foundation (CAF). The broadcast code for advertising to children. http://media-awareness.ca/eng/indus/advert/bcac.htm
CAF 1993
The code specifies that there is
to be no advertising which directly urges children to buy, or ask their parents
to buy, a product or service. It bans the use of
puppets, persons and characters well known to children to promote products,
services etc.
6.
Children’s
Advertising Review Unit. Self-Regulatory Guidelines for Children’s Advertising
(revised December 2001). Council of
Better Business Bureau, Inc. 6th edition. 2000
Aims to promote responsible
children’s advertising in the
7.
Clay,
RA. Advertising to children: Is it ethical? Monitor on Psychology, September 2000
31(8) or http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep00/advertising.html
Discusses
the ethical dimensions of psychologists using their knowledge to help marketers
target children more effectively.
8.
Commercialism
in Education Research Unit (CERU). Legislation.
http://www.asu.edu/educ/epsl/CERU/CERU_Legislation.htm, CERU 2001
Gives
an outline of US National and state specific legislation on commercialism in
schools.
9.
Consumer
This report surveyed trends in
marketing to kids and pointed to problems that should be addressed by parents,
schools, and the government. One area of greatest concern was the increasing
trend of marketers to place their messages in schools.
10. Consumers
This report follows on from the
1998 report of Selling
11. Currie C, Hurrelmann
K, Settertobulte W., Smith R., Todd J. (eds.) Health behaviour in school-aged children: a WHO Cross-national
study (HBSC) International Report. World Health Policy
Series: Health Policy for Children and Adolescents (HEPCA) Issue 1.
http://www.who.dk/document/e67880.pdf. World Health Organisation, Regional
Office for Europe 2000.
This
report provides data on child and adolescent health, and suggests health policy
initiatives around this issue
to make policies more sensitive to young people.
12. Del Valle, G An Overview
and Comparison of Rules, Regulations and Policies affecting advertising to
children in the
The four countries have very
different regulatory frameworks for television advertising to children – which
may make the development of European wide legislation difficult.
13. Del Vecchio, J. Creating
Ever-Cool: a marketer’s guide to a Kid’s Heart.
Gives
strategies for how to market most effectively to children.
14. Donnerstein E; Strasburger VC. Children, adolescents,
and the media in the 21st century: Adolesc Med;11(1):51-68,
2000 Feb.
American children and adolescents
spend an average of 3-5 hours per day with a variety of media, including
television, radio, videos, video games, and the Internet. Very little research
exists concerning adolescents' use of the Internet and the potential
behavioural impact, but many parents and professionals are concerned. Solutions
include: better programming, stricter regulation by parents, media education at
home and in schools, and greater advocacy on the part of health professionals..
15. Donnerstein E; Strasburger VC. Children, adolescents, and
the media: issues and solutions.. Pediatrics;103(1):129-39, 1999 Jan. .
This article looks at the impact
of the media on young people’s health and beahviour
in the 1990s. While focusing
specifically on violence, sex and drugs, it makes a series of recommendations
that could be applied to other areas, such as food, alcohol and tobacco.
16. European Audiovisual Observatory. Regulation on Advertising aimed at Children in EU Member States and some neighbouring
States. The legal Framework 2000.
http://www.obs.coe.int/online_publication/reports/childadv.pdf
Gives brief outlines on
regulation on advertising to children. Very useful.
17. Global Advertising Lawyers
Outlines
the new advertising regulation on television which specifies that no
advertising interruption is permitted when children's cartoons are being
broadcast.
18. Godin, S. Permission marketing: turning strangers into friends,
and friends into customers.
Argues that the features of the new media have
led to the emergence of a new marketing strategy
19. Harvey, JA.
Marketing
schools and consumer choice. The International Journal of Educational
Management, 1996, 10(4): 26-32
Marketing may be useful if
correctly applied may be beneficial rather than harmful.
20. Huston AC; Schmitt KL; Linebarger
DL; Wright JC;
Study reports on the follow-up of
570 adolescents who had been studied as pre-schoolers in one of two separate
investigations of television use. The primary goal of the study was to
determine the long-term relations between pre-school television viewing and
adolescent achievement, behaviour, and attitudes. Among other results, there
was a positive relation of total viewing to obesity for girls. Generally, the
content viewed is more important than raw amount of television viewed.
21. Independent Television Commission,
States
that it is important that “advertising should not undermine progress towards
national dietary improvement by misleading or confusing consumers or by setting
bad examples, particularly to children".
22. Lamb, J. Briefing Paper Issue: Advertising and
Children. ISBA 2002
ISBA is against any banning or
further restriction of advertising to children.
They argue that children are aware of the role of advertising, that
advertisers respect children and that restriction on TV advertising would lead
to the impoverishment of the quality and quantity of children’s TV.
23. Liebert RM, Sprafkin JN. The Early
Window: Effects of Television on
Children and Youth. 3d Ed.
Main
findings: that children under 8 years of age accept advertising claims to be
true, and that they cannot distinguish advertising
from regular television programming.
24. Macklin, MC, Carlson, L. (eds) Advertising
to Children - Concepts and Controversies,
This book provides current
issues in the field of advertising to children from a number of leading US
advertisers and academics. Topics
covered in this book include marketing on the internet, and the role of
advertising in young people's attitudes to smoking.
25. McNeal,
J. Kids as Customers: A handbook of marketing to
children.
Comprehensive review of
strategies for marketing effectively to children- provides the essential do's
and don'ts for tapping into this lucrative market.
26. McNeal JU, Yey C. Development of consumer behaviour patterns among
Chinese children. Journal of Consumer Marketing 1997 14(1):45-49
This article examines
Chinese children and their behaviour as primary consumers including their
income, spending and saving patterns.
Findings suggest that children influence around two thirds of parents'
purchases
27.
This article investigates
which individual or group of individuals has the strongest influence on
adolescent consumer purchase intentions and purchase behaviours. Compares the role of
parents and favourite entertainers and athletes.
28. McNeal, J.
Tapping
the three kids’ markets. American Demographics April 1998:
37-41.
Study finds that children’s
nagging power has increased significantly.
In 1982, children aged 4-12 influenced about $50 billion of their
parents’ purchases. By 1997, the figure
had tripled to about $188 billion.
29. Molnar A., Reaves AJ. Buy me! Buy me! The Fourth Annual Report on Trends in Schoolhouse
Commercialism Year 2000-2001.
(http://www.schoolcommercialism.org/) Commercialism in Education
Research Unit, 2001
This report finds that there is
an increasing acceptance of commercialisation in most areas of life. It identifies eight different types of
commercialisation in schools, and asks whether commercialism is becoming a
norm.
30. Molnar, A.
Giving Kids the Business: the commercialization of
This book documents the
commercial invasion of public education and explains its alarming consequences,
looking at proposals involving for-profit schools run by companies,
taxpayer-financed vouchers for private schools, market-driven charter schools,
and Channel One, a television program for schools.
31.
The entire nature of the media
system is undergoing dramatic change. Youth are embracing the new technologies
much more rapidly than adults. In addition, because of their increased spending
power, youth have become a valuable target market for advertisers. These trends
have spurred the proliferation of Web sites and other forms of new-media
content specifically designed for teens and children. The burgeoning digital
marketplace has spawned a new generation of market research companies, and
market research on children and youth is outpacing academic research on youth
and the newer media.
32.
Author notes that the interactive
properties of the internet are likely to have a strong impact on what children
value. Furthermore she notes that
advertising and marketing are quickly spreading into the ‘kids
space’ on the World Wide Web. The
chapter outlines the key features of interactive marketing and discusses their
effects on children’s media, and concludes with recommendations for policy and
research.
33. Montgomery, KC., Pasnik S. Web of deception: threats to children from online
marketing.
This report documents information
on children’s behaviour on the internet via games, surveys, prizes etc.
34. Myrvang, S. Tips for Parenting in a
commercial culture. Center
for a New American Dream (http://www.newdream.org/campaign/kids/htmlbrochure.html)
1999
Outlines the
commercial influences impacting on children, and
recommendations for action, specifically for parents.
35. Pasnik, S. Channel One Online:
Advertising not educating.
Channel One is a news bureau in
the USA that aims to inform students and teachers on current events and reaches
approximately 40% of middle and high school students. Author argues that Channel One is more like
“an advertising delivery system” than a news bureau.
36. Peppers D.,
Describes
the principle of one-to-one marketing which has been used in many commercial
web-sites targeted at children.
37. Sawicky MB, Molnar A. The Hidden Costs of
Channel One - Estimates for the Fifty States.
(http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/CACE). Center for the Analysis of Commercialism in Education, 1998
Advertising campaigns penetrate
both the physical grounds of the school and the curriculum itself, and Channel One is a prime example of the latter. This article looks at
the hidden costs of Channel One, and argues that it costs $300 million a year
of the public’s money to require students to watch Channel One’s two minutes of
advertisements. Overall, the 12 minute
programme costs American taxpayers $1.8 billion annually.
38. Thorne LeClair, D. Marketing planning and the policy environment
in the European Union. International Marketing Review, 2000,
17(3): 193-215
This article examines the
effects of government policy on marketing activities.
39. UNESCO.
International and Regional Declarations and Resolutions - Children and
Media.
(www.nordicom.gu.se/unesco/declarations.html). UNESCO, 2001
Contains
an outline of declarations and resolutions in
Marketing of Food to Young People
40. Advertising Education Forum (AEF). Children,
Diet and Advertising. 2000 http://aeforum.org/issues/Children_diet_advertising.html
Denies
the role of advertising in children’s consumption of unhealthy foods.
41. Alleman, G. Save your child from the fat epidemic.
Identifies factors behind
childhood obesity, such as marketing of unhealthy foods. Author
recommends a 7 step program designed to interest children in healthy foods and
exercise.
42.
Article looks at evidence of
negative impact of television viewing on children, such as obesity. They make a series of recommendations to
parents, to paediatricians and other health care professionals
43.
This article tries to
explain the low consumption of vegetables by Scottish children by looking at
the factors shaping their perceptions of vegetables. This article looks at the impact of a variety
of factors, including advertising. It
concludes by recommending a number of strategies to overcome the impact of some
of these factors.
44. Borzekowski DL, Robinson TN. The 30-second effect: an experiment revealing the
impact of television commercials on food preferences of pre-schoolers. J Am
Diet Assoc 2001 Jan; 101(1):42-6
Study finds that even brief
exposures to television commercials influences pre-school children’s
preferences.
45. Brownen Cramer, S. A united approach to
healthy schools. British Food Journal 1998, 100 (8):
380-384
This article looks at the
development of the Healthy Schools Award in
46. Brownlee S, Wolter
P. Supersize Country. Washington
Post,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A46634-2001Dec14?language=printer.
Article comments that food
and soft drink manufacturers have adopted the tobacco industry's mode of
marketing. Marketing strategies focus on
increasing awareness of individual responsibility for diet, rather than reducing
marketing of such foods. For example,
sugar, fast-food and soft-drink companies have launched a campaign called
"Be Active
47. Byrd-Bredbenner C., Grasso D. Trends in US prime-time
television food advertising across three decades. Nutrition
and Food Science 2000 30(2): 59-66
Concludes that for the past 30
years, food advertised on TV were mostly low nutrient density foods that are
promoted by slender, healthy actors.
48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (
Brief report
argues that a co-ordinated School Health Program is needed comprising of eight
essential elements including nutrition services, a healthy school environment,
health education and so on.
49. Consumers International. A spoonful of sugar- Television food advertising aimed
at children: an international survey. Consumers International 1996
Children are an important market
for advertising. Food advertising forms
the largest proportion of all television advertisements aimed at children in 11
out of 13 countries studied. Commercials
for McDonalds found in virtually every country.
Confectionery, breakfast cereals (pre sweetened) and fast food
restaurants made up
more than 50 per cent of all food advertisements found in survey.
50. Consumers International. Easy targets - A survey of television food and toy
advertising to children in four Central European Countries. Consumers
International 1999
Examines advertising in
(see:http://www.consumersinternational.org/news/pressreleases/ads251099.html )
51. Co-op
Argues
that global businesses are “putting huge market muscle behind products that
fail to fit with healthy eating advice” (p. 4). Marketing is
seen as a way of bewitching consumers into buying unhealthy foods.
52. Craypo L, Samuels SE.
Report finds
that vending machines in schools provided foods that were less healthy than
foods offered by the
53. Department of
The scheme
aims to provide every child in nursery and aged
54. Dibb, S. TV Dinners:
What's being served up by the advertisers?
Report finds that up to
99% of the adverts for food during children’s commercial TV programming are for
products with high fat and/or sugar and/or salt content. This trend is parallel with increasing
prevalence of childhood obesity and childhood dental decay.
55. Dietz WH, Gortmaker SL. Do we fatten our children at the television
set? Obesity and television viewing in
children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 1985;
75:807-812
Links television viewing with obesity.
56. Donkin AJM, Tilston CH, Neale RJ, Gregson, K. Children’s food preferences: television advertising
vs. nutritional advice. British Food Journal 1992 94(9)
57. Food Commission. Advertising to children –
The US,
58. Food
Standards Agency. Promotion of Food
to Children: Report on Qualitative Research..
http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/report_qua.pdf,
Report finds, among other things, that advertisements for foods was one factor that influenced
children's diet. Breakfast cereals and packed lunches were two areas
where children had a good deal of control over choices and where promotions
were highly influential.
59. Fumento, M. Fat of the Land: the obesity epidemic and how
overweight Americans can help themselves. Viking
Looks into why Americans are getting fatter, and what can be done about
it.
60.
Gelperowic R, Beharrell, B. Healthy Food Products for Children: Packaging
and Mothers Purchase Decisions. British Food Journal 1994 96(11): 4-8
Looks at children’s ‘pester power’ and their
influence on mothers purchasing choice.
Results show that mothers will not buy healthy foods if the packaging is
not acceptable to the children.
61. Gregory, J.; Lowe, S.; Bates, C. J.; Prentice,
A.; Jackson, L. V.; Smithers, G.; Wenlock,
R.; Farron, M. National
Diet and Nutrition Survey: Young people aged 4 to 18 years. Vol. 1, Report
of the diet and nutrition survey.
Provides data on diet of young people in
the
62.
Conclude that there is a conflict between commercial and public health
interests when it comes to food advertising in
63. Hellennich, N. Want some blue fries with
that shake? Food industry turns to color to sell to kids, http://www.usatoday.com/usatonline/20020321/3958238s.htm,
USA Today,
This article comments on a new trend in
marketing: companies are using colour to
lure children into consuming their product.
64. Kennedy C. Examining television as an influence on
children's health behaviors..J Pediatr Nurs;15(5):272-81,
2000 Oct. .
This article is a review of select empirical research studies examining
television as an influence on children's health behaviours. Study includes an
in-depth presentation of the research related to television content and its
effect on risk-taking and the role of television commercials and their
influence on nutrition and dietary behaviours..
65. Kortzinger,
Survey finds that
German chidren prefer a much higher
proportion of "healthy food options" compared with English
children. Reasons for such differences
could be related to advertising, among other things.
66. Lewis MK, Hill AJ. Food advertising on British children’s television: a
content analysis and experimental study with nine year olds. Int J Obes Relat Metab
Disord 1998 March;22(3):206-14
Advertisements to children dominated by those for foods with low nutritional
value.
67. Jeffrey DB, McLellarn RW, Fox DT. The development of children’s eating habits: the role of television commercials. Health Educ Q 1982 Summer-Fall 9(2-3):174-89
Findings suggest low nutrition ads are effective at increasing total caloric
consumption and that pro-nutrition ads are ineffective in increasing
consumption of pro-nutrition food.
68. James, W. P. T.; McColl, K. A. Healthy English Schoolchildren: A new
approach to physical activity and food. Aberdeen: Rowett Research Institute
1997 (available from www.iotf.org/php/)
Identifies commercial influences in schools and targeting of children by advertisers,
notes that children watching children's TV viewed three to four times as much
advertising for fatty, sugary and salty foods per hour than adults watching TV
after the 9.30 watershed. Companies also
use cartoon characters and other images which appeal to young children to
promote their products.
69. Kennedy, C.
Examining
television as an influence on children’s health behaviours. J. Pediatr Nurs 2000 Oct; 15(5):272-81
Reviews research on the role of television commercials and their influence on
dietary behaviours.
Kotz K, Story M. Food advertisements during
children’s Saturday morning television programming: are they consistent with
dietary recommendations? J Am Assoc 1994 Nov; 94(11):1296-1300
US based study finds that commercials during children’s Saturday morning
programmes promote foods predominantly high in fat and or sugar, many of which
have low nutritional value.
70. Ludwig, D S, Peterson, K E, Gortmaker
S L .Relation
between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: A
prospective observational analysis. The
Lancet 2001 Vol 357: 505-508
Findings: Consumption of sugar-sweetened
drinks is associated with obesity in children.
71. McNeal JU, Ji MF. Chinese children as consumers: an analysis of their
new product information sources. Journal of Consumer Marketing 1999
16(4): 345-365
This article investigates where Chinese children learn information about new
products, and their attitudes towards these different sources of
information. Findings show that children
use a wide range of information sources including retail outlets, mass media.
Survey finds that children feel television is the most important information
source.
72. Neal RJ, Otte S, Tilston
Primary school children in
73. Nestle M., Jacobson, MF. Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach. Public
Health Reports Jan/Feb 2000, Volume 115.
Recommends that advertisements for candy, snacks, fast foods and soft drinks
should not be allowed on television shows commonly watched by children younger
than 10 years of age. Particularly that
there should be bas in schools for commercials featuring foods with high
calorie, fat or sugar content (e.g. Channel One).
Olivares C., Sonia; Albala
Brevis, Cecilia; García B.,
Felipe; Jofré C., Irma. Publicidad
televisiva y preferencias alimentarias en escolares
de la Región Metropolitana / Television advertising and food preferences of school age
children of the Región Metropolitana Rev. méd.
To understand the alarming increase in the prevalence of child obesity in
74. Organix Brands. Carrots or Chemistry: the future of children’s food. (http://www.babyorganix.co.uk/report/default.asp) Organix Brands 2002
Concludes
that while the baby food industry is subject to strict regulation, this is not
the case for food targeted at children. Suggests that
the government should use the baby food industry as a model to introduce
comprehensive new legislation that regulates children’s food.
75. Piacentini M, MacFadyen L, Eadie
D. Corporate social
responsibility in food retailing. International Journal of Retail &
Distribution Management, 2000 28(11): 459-469
This study examined the
motivations of confectionary retailers to engage in corporate socially
responsible (CSR) activities. The study
finds that the main factors behind confectionery merchandising decisions were
space maximisation, profitability and customer pressure. None of the companies studied was motivated
to engage in CSR activities.
76. Price, S. The advertising of food to children: a submission to the Food Standards Agency. (http://www.adassoc.org.uk/position/fsa2.html). Advertising Association, UK 2001
Argues
that “the cause of childhood obesity and poor diet has little, if anything to
do with promotional activity” p. 2. Provides evidence that brand advertising has no impact on
consumption in children.
77. Radkar A., Mundlay A. Impact of TV
Food advertisements on buying decisions: Joint project by Consumers'
International (ROAP) and Mumbai Grahak Panchayat -
This report aimed to
understand the impact of TV advertising on buying decisions of food products in
particular. The study finds that the
products most frequently consumed by children are the ones most frequently advertised. This study compared adults and children and
found that children watch advertisements more carefully than adults. Nearly 70% of children report that they love
watching advertisements.
78. Samuels & Associates. 2000
This survey describes the kinds of fast foods being sold on high school
campuses and looks at the factors that influence the sale of such foods. At least 72% of those districts responding to
the survey allowed fast food and soda advertising on school campuses, and only
13% prohibited such advertising. Report
recommends that tighter regulation of advertising in schools, and to explore
other sources of revenue for schools that do not rely on the sale of unhealthy
foods.
79. Schlosser, E. Fast Food
Nation.
Documents the fast food industry in the
80. Smith, G (ed). Children’s Food: marketing & innovation. (Culinary and
Hospitality Industry Publications) Blackie Academic and Professional 1997
Outlines marketing strategies for effective advertising targeted at children.
81. Story M; Perry C; Casey MA; Neumark-Sztainer
D. Factors influencing food choices of adolescents:
findings from focus-group discussions with adolescents.. J
Am Diet Assoc;99(8):929-37, 1999 Aug.
This study assesses adolescents' perceptions about factors influencing their
food choices and eating behaviours. The study population included 141
adolescents in 7th and 10th grade from 2 urban schools in
82. Strauss RS, Pollack, HA. Epidemic increase in childhood overweight 1986-1998 JAMA December 2001, 286(22): 2845-2848
Argues that causes of childhood obesity are multi-factorial, and recommends
that a wide range of policy tools be adopted to shift the rising trend in
childhood obesity.
83.
This article assessed the quantity and nutritional value of foods advertised on children’s
television following new regulations. It
finds that commercials for unhealthy foods account for a large proportion of
children’s television viewing time, and that regulations
have not made a significant impact.
84. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foods Sold
in Competition with USDA School Meal Programs:
A report to Congress,
2001 http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/CompetitiveFoods/competitive.foods.report.to.congress.htm
Report argues that those foods which are sold
in competition with school meals may be contributing to unhealthy eating
practices among children.
85. Vignali, C. McDonald's:
"think global, act local"- the marketing mix. British Food Journal 2001
103(2): 97-111
This article looks at the marketing mix of McDonald's and shows how the company
impacts on the global environment and how they adapt to local communities.
86. Wilson N., Quigley R., Mansoor
O. Food ads on TV: a health hazard for
children? Aust N Z J Public Health 1999 Dec; 23(6):647-50
Findings: food advertisements associated
with increased risk of obesity and dental caries in childhood and
cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancers in adulthood.
87.
Links television viewing with childhood obesity.
88. Young B., Hetherington M. The literature on advertising and children’s
food choice. Nutrition & Food Science 1996 Sept/Oct
Reviews the literature on (a) frequency and content of television advertising
to children, (b) purchase request
behaviour, (c) influence of advertising
on food-related behaviour; (d) influence of advertising on attitudes and
values.
Marketing of Alcohol to
Young People
89. Alaniz ML, Wilkes C.
Pro-drinking messages and message environments for
young adults: the case of alcohol industry advertising in African American,
Latino, and Native American communities. J
Public Health Policy 1998;19(4):447-72
This
paper examines targeted alcohol advertising in three ethnic communities:
African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans in the
90.
Proposes an education based action plan to reduce adolescent alcohol
consumption. It finds that affective and
skills-based approaches were the most effective.
91. Atkin CK. Effects of televised alcohol
messages on teenage drinking patterns. J Adolesc Health
Care 1990 Jan;11(1):10-24
A critical review of survey research
evidence indicates that alcohol commercials contribute to a modest increase in
overall consumption by teenagers and may have a slight impact on alcohol misuse
and drunk driving. There are no studies measuring the effects of entertainment
programming on adolescents, but content analyses suggest the potential for
increased pro-drinking attitudes and behaviours. Policy implications for
addressing the deleterious effects of televised drinking are discussed, and
priorities for future research are identified.
92. Atkin CK. Effects
of Media Alcohol Messages on Adolescent Audiences. Adolesc Med 1993 Oct;4(3):527-542
Research into the effects of the media on
teenage alcohol consumption has concentrated on positive portrayals of beer
drinking in advertising, depiction of alcohol in movies and television programs,
and public service announcements that warn against abuse and drunk driving.
After examining each of these areas, the author focuses on the future role of
messages related to alcohol consumption.
93.
The study surveyed 273 children in
94. Avery R; Bisogni C;
Shanahan J; Mathios A. Alcohol portrayal on
prime-time television: manifest and latent messages. J Stud Alcohol;59(3):305-10, 1998 May.
The research in this article is designed to improve our understanding of
alcohol messages embedded in prime-time television. Results show that alcoholic beverages were
the most frequently portrayed food or drink. When adolescent characters are
involved with alcohol incidents, they are more likely to be shown consuming
this alcohol than are adults. In
conclusion, compared with other studies, this study finds higher rates of
alcohol portrayal by adolescents on prime-time television.
95. Catterson P, Hilton S, White M. Young people, alcohol, and
designer drinks. Conventional drinks are a much greater threat to health than
designer drinks. BMJ 1997 May 31;314(7094):1622-3
This article argues that conventional
drinks are a much greater threat to health than designer drinks. While designer drinks are an emerging
problem, conventional drinks are a much greater threat to health in
adolescents.
96.
Center for Media and Education(CME). Alcohol Advertising Targeted at
Youth on the Internet: an Update.
http://www.cme.org/publications/alcohol_tobacco/alcrep.htmlCME 1998
This study examines a total of 77 beer, wine and spirits web sites with regard
to their appeal to children in their marketing techniques. The content of the web sites are analysed
according to their youth appeal, privacy/data collection, age disclaimers and
information on substance abuse. Of all
77 sites, only Budweiser offered substantive information on substance
abuse. Overall alcohol companies
frequently use techniques considered to be appealing to users under the legal
drinking age.
97. Dring, C., Hope, A. The impact of alcohol advertising on teenagers in
This study on teenagers in
98. Dunn ME,
To advance the understanding of
influences on the development of alcohol expectancies in children, 551 4th- and
5th-grade children were exposed to 5 beer commercials or 5 soft drink commercials. Results suggest that children who viewed beer
commercials were more likely to activate positive and arousing alcohol
expectancies. In view of previous findings demonstrating that this pattern of
activation corresponded to higher drinking among 3rd, 6th, 9th, and 12th
graders, the present findings suggested that exposure to advertising may
promote heavier drinking among children by influencing the activation of
expectancies in memory.
99.
DuRant RH,
Music videos from five genres of music
were analysed for portrayals of tobacco and alcohol use and for portrayals of
such behaviours in conjunction with sexuality.
Results indicate that even modest levels of viewing may result in
substantial exposure to glamorised depictions of alcohol and tobacco use and
alcohol use coupled with sexuality.
100.Evans
JM, Kelly RF. Self-Regulation
in the Alcohol Industry: a Review of Industry Efforts to Avoid Promoting
Alcohol to Underage Consumers.
http://www.ftc.gov/reports/alcohol/alcoholreport.htm
Federal Trade Commission 1999
This report examines the effectiveness of the industry's voluntary guidelines
for advertising and marketing to underage audiences. While current codes on alcohol provide
important protections, the report notes that improvements are needed in codes
and their implementation, particularly the need for Third Party Review.
101.
Grube JW. Alcohol portrayals and alcohol advertising on
television: content and effects on children and adolescents. Alcohol
Health and Research World. 1993, 17(1): 61-66
Study finds that Children aged 9-11 are more familiar with the three frogs from
Budweiser than with Smokey the Bear, the Mighty Morphin'
Power Rangers an Kellogg's Frosted Flakes' Tony the Tiger.
102.
Grube JW, Wallack L. Television beer advertising and drinking
knowledge, beliefs, and intentions among schoolchildren. Am J Public Health 1994 Feb;84(2):254-9
The relationships between television beer
advertising and drinking knowledge, beliefs, and intentions were investigated
in a survey of schoolchildren.
Participants were a random sample of 468 fifth- and sixth-grade
schoolchildren from a northern
103.
Hughes K, MacKintosh AM,
This study examined the appeal of
"designer drinks" to young people by administering a self-completion
questionnaire to 824 Scottish adolescents aged 12-17. Results show that designer drinks appeal to
young people, often more so than conventional drinks, and are particularly
attractive to 14-16 year olds. Consumption of designer drinks is also
associated with drinking in less controlled environments, heavier drinking, and
greater drunkenness. There is a need for policy debate to assess the desirability
of these drinks and the extent to which further controls on their marketing are
required.
104.
Fact sheet focuses on the
105.Jackson MC, Hastings G, Wheeler C, Eadie D,
Mackintosh AM. Marketing alcohol to young people: implications
for industry regulation and research policy. Addiction 2000 Dec;95 Suppl 4:S597-608
Recent years have seen a growth in the
value that youth culture attaches to brand labels and symbols and a move away
from the healthy-living ethos. The alcohol industry's response to these trends
has been to design alcoholic beverages that appeal to young people, using
well-informed and precisely targeted marketing strategies. In the
106. Kelly KJ, Edwards RW. Image advertisements for alcohol products: is
their appeal associated with adolescents' intention to consume alcohol? Adolescence 1998 Spring;33(129):47-59
This study sought to determine if
adolescents who drink, or intend to drink alcohol at some future time, find
image advertisements for alcohol more appealing than product advertisements.
Evidence of an association between preference for image advertisements and
intent to drink in the future was found.
107.
McDaniel SR,
Mason DS. An exploratory study of influences on public
opinion towards alcohol and tobacco sponsorship of sporting events. Journal
of Services and Marketing, 1999 13(6): 481-500
This article compares attitudes toward Olympic sponsorship by a leading
108.
MediaScope. Youth-Oriented Alcohol
Advertising. http://www.mediascope.org/pubs/ibriefs/yoaa.htm. MediaScope Issue
Briefs, 2000
Briefly reviews marketing strategies used by alcohol companies to target young
people, and their impact on drinking behaviour in adolescents.
109.
Robinson TN, Chen HL,
This study e examined prospectively the
associations between media exposure and alcohol use in adolescents. A prospective cohort study was done using
110.
Sanchez
L, Sanchez S, Goldberg A, Goldberg A. Tobacco
and alcohol advertisements in magazines: are young readers being targeted? JAMA 2000 Apr 26;283(16):2106-7
Reviews evidence on how magazine marketing
strategies target young people.
111.
Sharma, I. Trends in
the intake of ready-to-eat food among urban school children in
610 school children aged 9-11 years were included in the study which aimed to establish the trends in
ready-to-eat food intake. Compared with
traditional foods, ready-to-eat foods were preferred by 68.7% of school
children. 80% felt that advertising
played a strong role in their food choices.
112.
Slater MD, Rounder D, Murphy K, Beavers F, Van Leaven J, Rodriguez MD. Male adolescents'
reactions to TV beer advertisements: the effects of sports content and
programming context. J Stud Alcohol
1996 Jul;57(4):425-33
This study examines white male adolescent
responses to TV beer advertisements with and without sports content and to
non-beer ads when embedded in sports and entertainment programming. Results
support public and official concerns that sports content in beer ads increase
the ads appeal to underage youth.
113.
Strasburger VC. Adolescents, drugs and the media. Adolesc Med: State of the Art Review 1993; 4:391-415
Up to 1993, American children viewed nearly 2000 beer and wine commercials per
year on television.
114.
Strasburger VC, Donnerstein E. Children,
adolescents, and the media in the 21st century. Adolesc Med 2000 Feb;11(1):51-68
Article points out that very little
research exists concerning adolescents' use of the Internet and the potential
behavioural impact. Solutions include:
better programming, stricter regulation by parents, media education at home and
in schools, and greater advocacy on the part of health professionals
115. Snyder LB, Milici
FF, Mitchell EW, Proctor DC. Media,
product differences and seasonality in alcohol advertising in 1997. J Stud Alcohol 2000 Nov;61(6):896-906
Study finds that alcohol advertising
expenditures were greatest in the late spring/early summer and during the
holiday season. Article concludes that
public health officials can use the results to plan the month and media in
which to launch messages against alcohol misuse, to directly counter
pro-alcohol messages in advertising. It
notes that children have access to beer ads when these ads are aired during
weekend daytime sporting events.
116.
Summary of a report of a joint working party of the
Report finds that heavy alcohol consumption sometimes begins in adolescence and
emphasises the importance of
educating young people about alcohol so that they can take
informed decisions and to protect young children from its harmful effects.
117. Wyllie A, Zhang JF, Casswell S. Responses to televised alcohol
advertisements associated with drinking behaviour of 10-17-year-olds. Addiction 1998 Mar;93(3):361-71
This article examines the nature of the
relationships between 10-17-year-old New Zealanders' responses to alcohol advertisements
and their drinking behaviour and future drinking expectations. Although there
are limitations on the confidence with which conclusions can be drawn, results
suggest alcohol advertising is likely to have some influence on young people.
118.
Zhang JF; Casswell S; Wyllie A. Positive responses to televised beer
advertisements associated with drinking and problems reported by 18 to
29-year-olds. Addiction;93(5):749-60, 1998 May.
This study was done in
119.
Zinser O, Freeman
JE, Ginnings DK.
A
comparison of memory for and attitudes about alcohol, cigarette, and other
product advertisements in college students.
J Drug Educ
1999;29(2):175-85
This study compared attitude ratings and
recall scores of cigarette, alcohol, automobile, deodorant, jeans, soft drink,
athletic shoe, breakfast cereal, and fast food restaurant advertisements.
Results revealed that the rating and recall scores of the alcohol
advertisements were significantly higher than those for the cigarette
advertisements and among the highest of all of the advertisement groups. That
alcohol advertising ranked among the highest of all of the advertising groups
indicates that college students view alcohol advertising very favourably.
Marketing
of Tobacco to Young People
120. Action on Smoking and Health (ASH). Tobacco Explained. : The truth about the tobacco industry… in its
own words http://www.ash.org.uk/html/conduct/html/tobexpld0.html ASH, 1998
In Chapter 3 of this report, industry documents are examined which confirm that
the market of young smokers is essential to the industry. Many documents reveal
the companies' pre-occupation with teenagers and younger children – and the
lengths they have gone to in order to influence smoking behaviour in this age
group.
121. Albright CL, Altman DG, Slater MD, Maccoby N. Cigarette advertisements in magazines: evidence for a
differential focus on women's and youth magazines. Health Educ Q 1988 Summer;15(2):225-33
Cigarette advertisements in eight popular magazines from 1960 to 1985 were
examined. Across all eight magazines, the average number of cigarette ads per
issue increased substantially
following the 1971 television ban on cigarette ads. Moreover,
beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s, proportionately more ads were
placed in women's and youth-oriented magazines than in magazines which targeted
other population segments. These data suggest that the tobacco industry may
have responded to decreases in the number of smokers and the per capita consumption
of cigarettes with an enterprising attempt to recruit new smokers-particularly
young people and women.
122.
Andrews RL, Franke GR. The determinants of
cigarette consumption: A meta analysis. Journal
of Public Policy and Marketing. 1991 10: 81-100
This is a meta-analysis of 48 econometric studies which found that tobacco
advertising significantly increased tobacco sales.
123.
Balch GI. Communicating with teens:
some lessons from commercial marketing. Tob Control 2000;9
Suppl 1:I52
This
article provides an outline of how public health messages can be targeted at
young people.
124. Bjartveit,
K. Fifteen years of comprehensive
legislation: results and
conclusions. Proceedings of the 7th World Conference on
Tobacco and Health,
Finds that advertising bands have been very effective in youth smoking
rates, as seen in
125. Center
for Media Education (CME). Alcohol
and Tobacco on the Web: New Threats to
Youth. http://www.cme.org/children/marketing. CME 1997
This report cautions that the emergence of a new electronic media environment
gives unprecedented power to marketers.
This report gives an outline of how the alcohol and tobacco industries
are targeting young people.
126. Center for Media Education (CME). Tobacco Targeted
at Youth on the Internet: an Update. http://www.cme.org/publications/alcohol_tobacco/tobrep.html. CME 1998.
66 web sites were analysed with
regard to their appeal to children in their marketing techniques. Report concludes that tobacco companies do
not seem to be targeting children, although smoking in general has a strong
presence on the Internet. Web sites do seem to attract young people, with cool
web-sites that glamorise smoking. Most
tobacco web-sites do not mention the health risks associated with tobacco. The report cautions that in the future the
tobacco industry may adopt youth oriented marketing strategies currently being
used by the alcohol industry.
127. Chaloupka F, Cummings KM, Morley C, et al. Tax, price and cigarette smoking: evidence from the tobacco documents
and implications for tobacco company marketing strategies. Tobacco Control 2002;11(Suppl I):i62–72
This paper examines the tobacco industry's use of price related
marketing strategies to capture market share among more price
sensitive younger smokers. Price related promotional efforts such as
"buy one get one free", targeted sampling activities, and
the use of "value added" promotions (for example, Camel
Cash) were identified as a critical factor in the growth of RJR's
Camel brand in the 1980s and 1990.
128.
Chapman S,
Fitzgerald B. Brand preferences and
advertising recall in adolescent smokers: some implications for health
promotion. American Journal of Public Health 1982: 72:491-4
Study finds that young people smoke the most heavily advertised brands.
129.
Charlton A,
While D., Kelly S. Boys' smoking and
cigarette-brand-sponsored motor racing. Lancet 1997; 350:1474
Study finds that 12-13 year old
boys whose favourite television sports included motor racing were twice as likely
to become regular smokers as their peers who did not watch it.
130.
Charlton A, Moyer C, Gupta P,
Hill D. Youth and Cigarette Smoking. Tobacco Control Factsheets.
http://factsheets.globalink.org/en/youth.shtml. UICC Globalink 2002
Gives
an overview of trends in cigarette smoking in young people. It
identifies advertising as one of the reasons why young people take up smoking,
and suggests that a total ban on advertising is necessary.
131.
Coleman M; St Cyr D; DiFranza JR.
A comparison of the advertising and accessibility of cigars, cigarettes,
chewing tobacco, and loose tobacco.. Prev Med;29(5):321-6, 1999 Nov. .
An experimental design compared the rates of illegal sales to minors of
cigarettes, chewing tobacco, and cigars. Results found that illegal sales rates
were similar for cigarettes, chewing tobacco, and cigars. All types of tobacco
products were displayed to permit the package to serve as advertising. This
study concludes that point-of-purchase advertising for cigars may be
increasing, and their lower price makes them more affordable to youths.
Manufacturers pay retailers for the placement of product displays that allow
the package to be used as an advertisement without the appearance of the
Surgeon General's warning. Generic packaging may be necessary to protect
children from point-of-purchase advertising..
132.
Cummings, K
M, Pollay, R W. Exposing Mr Butts' tricks of the trade. Tob Control 2002 11: i1-4
The papers presented in this issue are based on the approximately
33 million pages of tobacco industry documents released as part of
a settlement agreement between the tobacco industry and the
133.
Deland K,
Lewis K,
Recently released tobacco industry documents unequivocally establish that the
tobacco industry has made a practice of targeting women and girls for decades
in an effort to cultivate what it considers an under exploited market. This
article discusses the importance of strategies to limit the growth of the
tobacco pandemic and describes the World Health Organization's Framework
Convention on Tobacco Control, which may have important implications for
preventing the further spread of tobacco use among women.
134. Department of
Section 4 of the report focuses on young people and cigarette advertising. The report states that the committee was of
the "unanimous view that tobacco advertising and promotion influence the
uptake of smoking by young people".
135.
DiFranza JR, Richard
Jr JW, Paulman PM, et al. RJR Nabisco’s cartoon camel promotes Camel
cigarettes to children. JAMA 1991;
266: 3149-3153
Finds that advertising for Camel cigarettes was more effective among children
and adolescents than among adults
136.
Eadie D, Hastings G, Stead M, MacKintosh
AM. Branding: could it hold the key to future tobacco
reduction policy? Health Education
1999, 99(3): 103 –110
This paper argues that branding may prove pivotal to re-orienting thinking
about how tobacco marketing continues to influence smoking initiation in young
people. It concludes that explanations for smoking initiation can be found by
examining how exposure to competing forces such as these during adolescence may
conspire to brand smoking in away that encourages young people to experiment
with cigarettes
137.
Emri S, Bagci T, Karakoca Y, Baris E. Recognition of
cigarette brand names and logos by primary schoolchildren in
The study aims to assess the smoking
behaviour of primary schoolchildren and their ability to recognise brand names
and logos of widely advertised cigarettes, compared with other commercial
products intended for children. Results find that the Camel logo and the
138. Fairclough, G. Brown & Williamson campaign targets
younger adult smokers. Indian
Express Newspapers (
Brown & Williamson Tobacco is launching a new, music-themed marketing
campaign for Kool (their cigarette brand) that is
intended to appeal to younger adult smokers who tend to be the most loyal and
the least sensitive to rising prices for smokes. Brown & Williamson also is
mounting a special promotion in July, selling four million packs of Kool cigarettes packaged in a special black and neon-green
box along with a free, egg-shaped mini radio, complete with earphones. An
insert invites smokers to "be a part of the Kool
scene" at "the most jamming nightclubs in the hottest cities."
139. Feighery E, Borzekowski DL, Schooler C, Flora J. Seeing, wanting, owning: the relationship
between receptivity to tobacco marketing and smoking susceptibility in young
people. Tob Control 1998 Summer;7(2):123-8,
Article concludes that there is a clear
association between tobacco marketing practices and youngsters' susceptibility
to smoke. Evidence strongly argues for regulation of tobacco marketing
strategies so as to protect young people from the tobacco industry's strategies
to reach them.
140. Feighery EC, Ribisl KM, Schleicher N, Lee RE, Halvorson S. Cigarette advertising and
promotional strategies in retail outlets: results of a statewide
survey in
Study examines the extent and types of cigarette advertising materials in
stores and to assess tobacco company compliance with the 1998 Master Settlement
Agreement (MSA). It concludes that the spirit of the MSA-to protect children
from cigarette advertising-has not been realised.
141.
This study assessed the exposure of adolescent girls to cigar images in women's
magazines from 1992 to 1998, and found that within this period, adolescent
readers of women's magazines were increasingly exposed to images of cigars.
142.
Fidler W, Lambert
TW. A prescription for health: a primary care based
intervention to maintain the non-smoking status of young people. Tob Control 2001 Mar;10(1):23-6
This study evaluates the effectiveness of
primary health care teams in maintaining a group of young people aged 10--15
years as non-smokers. Results show that the intervention substantially reduced
smoking uptake among the young people, particularly boys. Primary health care
teams can play an important role in maintaining the non-smoking status of their
young patients. Confidential postal contact from the doctor direct to the young
person at home is influential and cost-effective.
143.
Fischer PM, Schwart MP, Richards JW, et al. Brand logo recognition by children aged 3 to
6 years. JAMA. 1991; 266:3145-3148
Finds that one third of 3 year old children and nearly all
children older than 6 years were able to recognise the Old Joe Camel logo. By age 6, the Camel logo is as familiar to
children as Mickey Mouse.
144. Giplin EA, Pierce JP, Rosbrook
B. Are adolescents receptive to current sale
promotion practices of the tobacco industry?
Preventive Medicine 1997,
26:14-21
Reports that indirect advertising, e.g. sponsorship of sports
and cultural events, using tobacco names on other products e.g. Marlboro
Classics Clothing. Study finds
that young people are easily attracted to indirect advertising.
145. Harper T. Marketing life after advertising bans. Tob Control 2001 Jun;10(2):196-8
Article argues that in
146. Hargreaves S. Still a long way to go in the war against tobacco. Lancet
2001 Mar 3;357(9257):696
Argues that marketing of modified
cigarettes with less nicotine may be encouraging young people to smoke.
147.
Shows that advertising influences the decision to smoke in
young people.
148.
This paper analysed marketing documents in an effort to understand
the tobacco industry's frequent use of bar promotions. This review
shows promotions are carefully planned and targeted to reach a young
adult market. Tobacco industry documents reveal that such promotions
help communicate product brand information indirectly through a
diffusion process.
149.
Kawane H. The influence of the
Shows that consumption of cigarettes has increased substantially since a
massive cigarette advertising campaign was begun.
150.
Kessler DA,
Myers ML. Beyond
the tobacco settlement.
One of the broad goals of the Master Settlement Agreement signed in 1998 are to reduce exposure of young people to tobacco marketing,
among other things. This article
concludes that the agreement has not fulfilled its promise: young people continue to be bombarded by
tobacco marketing. Recommends that
legislation, rather than self-regulation, is necessary.
151. King C 3rd, Siegel M. Brand-specific cigarette advertising in magazines in
relation to youth and young adult readership, 1986-1994. Nicotine Tob Res 1999
Dec;1(4):331-40
This study investigated whether cigarette brands popular among youths are
preferentially advertised in magazines with high youth readerships. It was
concluded that, over nearly a decade, cigarette brands popular among youths
were more likely than adult brands to advertise in magazines with high youth
readerships.
152. King C 3rd, Siegel M. The Master Settlement Agreement with the
tobacco industry and cigarette advertising in magazines.
In 1998, the attorneys general of 46 states signed a Master Settlement
Agreement with the four largest tobacco companies in the
153. King C 3rd, Siegel M, Celebucki
C, Connolly GN. Adolescent exposure to cigarette advertising in magazines: an
evaluation of brand-specific advertising in relation to youth readership. JAMA
1998 Feb 18;279(7):516-20
Magazine advertising accounts for nearly
half of all cigarette advertising expenditures. Study finds that cigarette
brands popular among young adolescents are more likely than adult brands to
advertise in magazines with high youth readerships.
154. Kralikova E, Kozak JT. Tobacco control in the Czech Republic.Cent Eur J Public Health 2000
May;8(2):74-6
Overview of mechanisms for tobacco control in the
155. Lam TH, Chung SF, Betson
CL, Wong CM, Hedley AJ. Tobacco advertisements: one of
the strongest risk factors for smoking in
Concludes that in
156. Lantz PM, Jacobson PD, Warner KE, Wasserman J,
Pollack HA, Berson J, Ahlstrom
A. Investing
in youth tobacco control: a review of smoking
prevention and control strategies. Tob Control 2000
Mar;9(1):47-63
This article provides a comprehensive
review of interventions and policies aimed at reducing youth cigarette smoking
in the
157.Laugesen M, Swinburn
B.
The study aims to review the impact of
158.
Lynch BS,
Bonnie RJ (eds). Growing up
tobacco free: Preventing nicotine addiction in children and youths.
This study examined trends in consumption and advertising in 33 countries
during 1970-1986. It fond that the
higher the degree of governmental control on tobacco
advertising and sponsorship, the larger the annual reduction in tobacco
consumption.
159.
MacFadyen L, Hastings
G, MacKintosh AM. Cross sectional study of young people's
awareness of and involvement with tobacco marketing. BMJ 2001 Mar 3;322(7285):513-7
Study finds that teenagers are aware of, and are participating in, many forms
of tobacco marketing, and both awareness and participation are associated with
current smoking status. This suggests that the current voluntary regulations
designed to protect young people from smoking are not working, and that
statutory regulations are required
160. Malone RE,
This study examined the accessibility and appeal to youth of cigar marketing
sites on the Internet, and concludes that the unregulated promotion of cigars
on the Internet has the potential to attract youth, and there are few barriers
to Internet tobacco purchases by minors.
161.
McKenna J,
Gutierrez K, McCall K. Strategies for an
effective youth counter-marketing program: recommendations from commercial
marketing experts. J Public Health Manag
Pract 2000 May;6(3):7-13
Article argues that counter-marketing
campaigns should: highlight a tobacco-free lifestyle as the majority lifestyle
of diverse and interesting individuals; explain the dangers of tobacco in a
personal, emotional way; offer youth empowerment and control; use multiple
voices, strategies, and executions; offer constructive alternatives to tobacco use;
and portray smoking as unacceptable and undesirable for everyone.
162.
Mekemson C, Glantz SA. How the
tobacco industry built its relationship with
This study describes the development of
the relationship between the tobacco industry and the entertainment
industry by reviewing previously secret tobacco industry documents available
on the internet. Results show
that both the entertainment and tobacco industries recognised the
high value of promotion of tobacco through entertainment media. The
1980s saw undertakings by four tobacco companies, Philip Morris, RJ
Reynolds (RJR), American Tobacco Company, and Brown and Williamson
to place their products in movies. These firms placed products and
tobacco signage in positive situations that would encourage viewers
to use tobacco and kept brands from being used in negative
situations. Efforts were also made to encourage professional photographers to
take pictures of actors smoking specific brands. This article
concludes that the tobacco industry understood the value of placing and
encouraging tobacco use in films, and how to do it. While the
industry claims to have ended this practice, smoking in motion
pictures increased throughout the 1990s and remains a public health
problem.
163. Morris K.
Report
points to Formula 1 role in teen smoking.
Lancet 1998 Jul 18;352(9123):205
This article presents the conclusions of the 1998 ASH Report “Formula 1 an
tobacco: the world’s most dangerous
sport?”, which states that Formula 1 is the ideal way
to target young people.
164.
Pechmann C, Reibling ET. Planning an effective anti-smoking mass media campaign
targeting adolescents. J Public Health Manag Pract 2000 May;6(3):80-94
This article addresses the following
issues: Can an anti-smoking campaign that depends largely on mass media
vehicles effectively reduce adolescent tobacco use? Why is an
integrated campaign recommended and what are the steps in designing such
a campaign? How should the campaign be evaluated? It is concluded that comprehensive
strategic planning and extensive research at all phases of the campaign are
essential to success.
165. Pierce JP, Choi WS, Gilpin EA,
A total of 1752 adolescents were interviewed in 1993, and re-interviewed in
1996 in
166. Pollay RW. Targeting youth and concerned smokers: evidence from
Canadian tobacco industry documents. Tob Control 2000 Jun;9(2):136-47
Study concludes that the industry's
steadfast assertions that its advertising influences only brand loyalty and
switching in both its intent and effect is directly contradicted by their
internal documents and proven false. Also false is the justification of
cigarette advertising as a medium creating better informed consumers, since
visual imagery, not information, is the means of advertising influence.
167. Pucci LG, Joseph HM Jr., Siegel
M. Outdoor tobacco advertising in six
The FDA introduced regulations in 1996 that prohibited outdoor tobacco
advertising within 1000 feet of schools and playgrounds. This study examined the prevalence, type and
proximity of advertising in
168. Pucci LG, Siegel M. Features
of sales promotion in cigarette magazine advertisements, 1980-1993: an analysis
of youth exposure in the
This study finds that in their magazine advertising,
cigarette companies are preferentially exposing young people to advertisements
that contain sales promotional features.
169. Roemer, R.
Legislative action to combat the World Tobacco
Epidemic (2nd Ed).
Finds strong evidence that tobacco advertising significantly
increases tobacco sales.
170. Saffer H., Chaloupka, F. The effect of tobacco advertising bans on tobacco
consumption. Journal of Health Economics 2000 19:1117-1137
Although public health
advocates assert that tobacco advertising does increase smoking, there is
significant empirical literature that finds little or no effect of tobacco
advertising. In this paper, these prior studies are examined more closely with
several important insights emerging from this analysis. The primary conclusion
of this research is that a comprehensive set of tobacco advertising bans can
reduce tobacco consumption and that a limited set of advertising bans will have
little or no effect
171. Sanchez L, Sanchez S, Goldberg A, Goldberg A Tobacco and alcohol advertisements
in magazines: are young readers being targeted? JAMA 2000 Apr 26;283(16):2106-7
Reviews evidence on how magazine marketing strategies target young people.
172. Sargent JD,
Article aimed to assess whether a dose-response relation exists between the
number of cigarette promotional items (CPIs) owned by
an adolescent, and smoking behaviour. Results suggest there is a dose-response
relation between the number of CPIs owned by
adolescents and higher likelihood of experimental and established smoking.
173.
Sargent JD, Dalton
M, Beach M, Bernhardt A, Heatherton T, Stevens M. Effect of cigarette
promotions on smoking uptake among adolescents. Prev Med 2000 Apr;30(4):320-7,
Article shows close linkage between tobacco
promotional activities and uptake of smoking among adolescents beyond baseline
descriptions of receptivity to cigarette promotions. This provides strong
evidence that elimination of cigarette promotional campaigns could reduce
adolescent smoking.
174. Sargent JD,
This study assessed the prevalence of
ownership of cigarette promotional items (CPIs) by
rural northern
175. Sargent JD, Tickle JJ, Beach ML,
Study assessed the tobacco-brand
appearances in a 10-year sample of contemporary films (250 film in total). More
than 85% of the films contained tobacco use. Tobacco brands appeared in 70
(28%) films. Brand appearances were as common in films suitable for adolescent
audiences as they were in films for adult audiences (32 vs. 35%), and were also
present in 20% of those rated for children.
176.
Seimon T, Mehl GL. Strategic
marketing of cigarettes to young people in
Article shows that lavish campaigns
target the country's most vulnerable groups, preying especially upon the young
and a vast, untapped female population
177. Sepe E, Glantz SA. Bar and club tobacco
promotions in the alternative press: targeting young adults. Am J Public Health 2002 Jan;92(1):75-8,
This study examined changes in tobacco promotions in the alternative press in
178. Sly DF, Heald GR, Ray S. The
Results show that by the end of the first
year,
179. Sone T. Tobacco-related scenes in
television dramas for young Japanese audiences. Tob Control 1999 Autumn;8(3):350
The frequency and duration of tobacco related actions were measured in 94
episodes of 8 series of one hour TV dramas on 3 nation-wide commercial stations
between 1995-1996.
These dramas targeted young audiences.
The average number of tobacco related scenes were 4.22 per hour, higher
than that recorded in previous studies in the US in the 1980s and 1990s (0.35,
1.20). This high frequency seems to be
linked to the Japanese social norm that is highly tolerant of smoking. The article finds that many
tobacco related scenes have no link with the story line, so it should be
easy to eliminate them. Sone argues that it is important to reduce the presence of
tobacco related actions on TV so as to change the social tolerance of smoking.
180.
Sone T. Exposure of Japanese
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on-screen are significantly more likely to have an advanced smoking status
and more favourable attitudes toward smoking than adolescents who
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the portrayal of tobacco use in contemporary motion pictures, particularly
by stars who are admired by adolescents, contributes
to adolescent smoking.
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185. Vaidya SG, Vaidya JS, Naik UD. Sports
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have a similar effect on initiation rates in both sexes despite the strong
social taboo against girls smoking in
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increased alcohol and tobacco use.
188.
Article concludes that there is evidence
that they lead to change in factors that influence teenage smoking, and to
reductions in teenage smoking.
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core questionnaire. In 1999, the GYTS was conducted in 13 countries and is
currently in progress in over 30 countries. This report describes data from 12
countries: Barbados, China, Costa Rica, Fiji, Jordan, Poland, the Russian
Federation (Moscow), South Africa, Sri Lanka, Ukraine (Kiev), Venezuela, and
Zimbabwe. In most countries the majority of young people reported seeing
advertisements for cigarettes in media outlets, but anti-tobacco advertising
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190. Westhead, J.
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the National Youth Tobacco Survey show current tobacco use ranges from 12.8%
among middle school students to 34.8% among high school students. Young people
have strong cigarette brand preferences. Approximately three quarters of middle
school and high school students have seen antismoking commercials; however, 90%
report having seen actors smoking on television or in the movies.
Databases
used:
Medline - National Library of
Medicine - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
SOSIG –
Social Science Information Gateway - http://www.sosig.ac.uk/
BIREME –
Virtual Health Library http://www.bireme.br/
EMERALD –
management research gateway - http://www.emeraldinsight.com/
JSTOR –
Scholarly Journal Archive - http://www.jstor.org/
INGENTA –
Research Gateway - http://www.ingenta.com/
OXLIP –
BLPES –
British Library of Political and Economic Science – http://www.blpes.lse.ac.uk/
PsycINFO - American Psychological Association
Information Gateway - http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/
Google – http://www.google.com